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\head{CSU690}{Algorithms and Data}{Fall 2006}{24 November 2006}{18}

\begin{center}
\Large{\bf Problem Set 7 (due Tuesday, December 5)}
\end{center}

{\bf 1. (12 points) Reconstructing a tree}

You are asked to reconstruct the reporting hierarchy of a huge company
Disorganized, Inc., based on information that is complete but poorly
organized.  The information is available in an $n$-element array, in
which each element of the array is a pair $(\emp, \boss)$ where $\emp$
is the name of an employee and $\boss$ is the supervisor of the
employee, and $n$ is the number of employees in Disorganized.  You may
assume that the names of all employees are distinct.  For the company
CEO, the $\boss$ entry is empty.

Your task is to compute a tree in which each node has the name of an
employee $\emp$ and a parent field pointing to the node corresponding
to the supervisor of $\emp$ (for the CEO, the parent field will point
to NIL).
\begin{itemize}
\item[{\bf (a)}]
Design an $O(n \log n)$ time deterministic algorithm for the problem.
Justify the running time of your algorithm.

\item[{\bf (b)}]
Using hashing, design an expected $O(n)$ time randomized algorithm for
the problem.  Justify the running time of your algorithm.

\end{itemize}

{\bf 2. (12 points) Ternary Huffman coding}

The Huffman code algorithm that we studied in class encoded each
character into sequences over the binary alphabet $\{0,1\}$.  Suppose
you have a communication mechanism with which you can transmit
sequences over a ternary alphabet $\{0,1,2\}$.  Provide a modified
Huffman algorithm for compressing a file with $n$ distinct characters
with frequences $f_1, f_2, \ldots, f_n$ using $\{0,1,2\}$.  Your
algorithm should encode each character with a variable-length codeword
over the values $0,1,2$ such that no codeword is a prefix of another
codeword and so as to obtain the maximum compression.  Prove that your
algorithm is correct.

{\bf 3. (12 points) Huffman encoding, entropy, and the English
alphabet}

\begin{itemize}
\item[{\bf (a)}]
Obtain a table from the web giving the frequencies of the letters of
the English alphabet.

\item[{\bf (b)}] 
What is the optimum Huffman encoding of this alphabet?

\item[{\bf (c)}]
What is the expected number of bits per letter?
\end{itemize}

{\em Entropy} is a mathematical formulation of the uncertainty and/or
the amount of information in a data set.  Consider a data set $D$
consisting of $n$ characters, each character independently chosen from
a set $C$ according to a specified probability distribution $p$.  That
is, for $c \in C$ and $0 \le i < n$, the probability that the $i$th
character of $D$ is $c$ is $p(c)$.  Note that $\sum_{c
\in C} p(c) = 1$.  The entropy of data set $D$ is then defined to be
\[
n\sum_{c \in C} p(c)\log_2 (1/p(c)).
\]
Intuitively, the entropy measures the {\em information-theoretic
minimum}\/ number of bits needed to represent the data set.

\begin{itemize}
\item[{\bf (d)}]
Calculate the entropy of a corpus, that contains English letters in
the same frequencies as (a).  Do you think this is the limit of how
much English text can be compressed?  Explain.

\item[{\bf (e)}] {\bf (6 bonus points)}
Prove that if all the probabilities are powers of $2$ (i.e., for every
$c$ there exists an $i \ge 0$ such that $p(c) = 1/2^i$), then the
expected number of bits used in the Huffman encoding of $D$ exactly
equals its entropy.
\end{itemize}

{\bf 4. (12 points) Security of a simplified RSA}

Suppose that instead of using $N = pq$ in the RSA cryptosystem, we
simply use a prime modulus $p$.  As in RSA, we would have an
encryption exponent $e$ relatively prime to $p-1$ and encryption of a
message $m \bmod p$ would be $m^e \bmod p$.  Prove that this new
cryptosystem is not secure, by giving an efficient algorithm to
decrypt: that is, an algorithm that given $p$, $e$, and $m^e \bmod p$
as input, computes $m \bmod p$.  Justify the correctness of your
algorithm and analyze the running time of your decryption algorithm.

{\bf 5. (12 points) RSA and digital signatures} 

A digital signature scheme has two components, \sign\ and \verify.
Digital signatures can be implemented using RSA.  The \sign\ procedure
takes a message $M$ and a secret key $d$ corresponding to an RSA
triple $(N, d, e)$, then outputs a signature $\sigma = M^d \bmod N$.
The \verify\ procedure takes a public key $(N, e)$, a signature
$\sigma$, and a message $M$, then returns ``true'' if $\sigma$ could
have been created using a consistent RSA triple.
\begin{itemize}
\item[{\bf (a)}]
Signing involves decryption, and is therefore risky.  Show that if Bob
agrees to sign anything he is asked to, Eve can take advantage of this
and decrypt any message sent by Alice to Bob.

\item[{\bf (b)}]
Suppose that Bob is more careful and refuses to sign messages if their
signatures look suspiciously like text.  Describe a way in which Eve
can nevertheless still decrypt messages from Alice to Bob, by getting
Bob to sign messages whose signatures look random.
\end{itemize}
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